NSF Grant on Responsible Critical Minerals
Colorado School of Mines
With support from the National Science Foundation (NSF) and under the Growing Convergence Research (GCR) program, our interdisciplinary team of scientists and scholars are reimagining the approach to the mining of critical materials in the United States. The project is a collaboration between Colorado School of Mines and Fort Lewis College. Via a multipronged approach, we are researching the intersection of technical, economic, social, and political sustainability of mining.
About
Our GCR team brings together 11 academic disciplines, each represented by a faculty investigator: public policy, environmental sociology, environmental and community sustainability, anthropology, geography, economics, environmental engineering, metallurgical engineering, mining engineering, geotechnical engineering, and ore deposit geology. Our postdoctoral fellows and graduate students each work across multiple disciplines. Together we have developed a convergent vision for the future of critical mineral supply as responsible, efficient, and just production to contribute to sustainable development.
We are evaluating three production pathways for critical minerals:
New Mines
Targeting a critical mineral as the main commodity
Byproduct
Recovery of critical minerals from operating mines
Mine Waste
Recovery of critical minerals from previously processed materials

Pathways
For each of these three pathways, we use case studies to elucidate the characteristics and recoverability of critical elements; innovative mining and metallurgical recovery processes; and the environmental, social, and economic implications of production.
Our convergent approach brings together community stakeholders, extractive industries, governmental agencies, and policymakers to develop a shared vision and actionable steps for responsible critical mineral production. In classrooms and in the field, we prepare a new generation of leaders inspired to implement transformative approaches for earth resources development.
Taking place across eight case study sites in the US, our research identifies new approaches so that critical minerals mining can become more responsible.
Meet Our Research Team
Colorado School of Mines




Fort Lewis College


Montana Tech
PhD Students
Research Map

Research Outputs
PUBLISHED JOURNAL ARTICLES FROM PHASE 1
- Holley, E., Zaronikola, N., Thompson, J., Pfaff, K., Spiller, E., Trouba, J. 2023. Cobalt mineralogy at the Iron Creek deposit, Idaho Cobalt Belt, USA: Implications for domestic cobalt supply. Geology 51, no. 8: 773-778. https://doi.org/10.1130/G51160.1
2. Sovacool, B.K., Bazilian, M.D., Kim, J., Griffiths, S., 2023. Six bold steps towards net-zero industry. Energy Research & Social Science 99: 103067. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.erss.2023.103067
3. Lee, J.C., Smith, N.M., Bazilian, M.D., Holley, E. 2024. Critical mineral demand estimates for low-carbon technologies: What do they tell us and how can they evolve? Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 189, no. A: 113938. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2023.113938
4. Malone, A., Smith, N. M., Holley, E. A., Htun T. 2023.Prospects for American cobalt: Reactions to mine proposals in Minnesota and Idaho. Energy Research and Social Science 105: 103284. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.erss.2023.103284
JOURNAL PUBLICATIONS BY GCR TEAM DURING PROPOSAL REVIEW PERIOD
- Lee, J., Bazilian, M., Hastings-Simon, S. 2021. The material foundations of a low-carbon economy. Cell One Earth 4, no. 3: 331-334. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.oneear.2021.02.015
2. Watson, B.J., Eggert, R. 2021. Understanding relative metal prices and availability: combining physical and economic perspectives. Journal of Industrial Ecology 25, no. 4: 890-899 https://doi.org/10.1111/jiec.13087
3. Nguyen, R.T., Eggert, R., Severson, M.H., Anderson, C.G. 2021. Global electrification of vehicles and intertwined material supply chains of cobalt, copper and nickel. Resources, Conservation and Recycling 167: 105198. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.resconrec.2020.105198
4. Bazilian, M.D., Carley, S., Konisky, D., Zerriffi, H., Pai, S., Handler, B., 2021. Expanding the scope of just transitions: Towards localized solutions and community-level dynamics. Energy Research & Social Science 80: 102245. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.erss.2021.102245
5. Kerber, S.W., Gilbert, A.Q., Deinert, M.R., Bazilian, M.D., 2021. Understanding the nexus of energy, environment, and conflict: An overview. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 151: 111473. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2021.111473
BOOK CHAPTERS
- Eggert, R. 2023. Public policy toward critical minerals: a false dichotomy, a messy middle ground, and seven guiding principles. In Critical Minerals, the Climate Crisis, and the Tech Imperium, 71-80. S. Kalantzakos (Ed). Cham: Springer Nature Switzerland. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-25577-9_4
2. Nelson, P. P. 2022. The Future of Tailings Management. In Tailings Management Handbook: A Life-Cycle Approach, 277-316. K.F. Morrison (Ed.). Littleton, CO: Society for Mining, Metallurgy & Exploration.
3. Nelson, P. P., Spiller, D.E. 2024. Mine Tailings. In Handbook of Recycling. State-Of-the-art for Practitioners, Analysts, and Scientists, 287-297. C. Meskers, E. Worrell M. A. Reuter (Eds.). Amsterdam: Elsevier. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-323-85514-3.00037-3
ADDITIONAL CONTRIBUTIONS
- Bolstad, P., Lee, J., 2022. Energy independence doesn’t mean what it used to, and here’s the national security issue. Foreign Policy.
2. Deberdt, R. 2024. The United States’ strategy for securing critical minerals supplies: can it meet the needs of the IRA? Institute Français des Relations Internationales (IFRI).
3. Lee, J., 2021. The U.S. is worried about its critical mineral supply chains – essential for electric vehicles, wind power and the nation’s defense. The Conversation.
4. White papers (8 total)
5. Conference proceedings (10 total)
6. Media interviews, webinar presentations, and public lectures by GCR team (104 total)
7. Bazilian, M., Clough, G., Holley, E., Eggert, R., Smith, N., Lee, J., Malone, A. 2023. The state of critical minerals. Payne Institute of Public Policy.
ASSOCIATED CONTRIBUTIONS
- Perdeli Demirkan, C., Smith, N.M., Duzgun, S. 2022. A quantitative sustainability assessment for mine closure and repurposing alternatives in Colorado, USA. Resources 11, no. 7: 66-97. https://doi.org/10.3390/resources11070066
2. Kincaid, C., Smith, N.M. 2022. Diversity and inclusion in mining: An analysis of indicators used in sustainability reporting. The Extractive Industries and Society 8, no. 4: 100981. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.exis.2021.100981